Verbs
Definition: Verbs are a class of words used
to show the performance of an action (do, throw, run), existence (be),
possession (have), or state (know, love) of a subject. To put it simply a
verb shows what something or someone does.
For example:
The verb tense shows the
time of the action or state. Aspect shows whether the action or state
is completed or not. Voice is used to show relationships between the
action and the people affected by it. Mood shows the attitude of the
speaker about the verb, whether it is a declaration or an order. Verbs can be
affected by person and number to show agreement with the subject.
Most statements in speech and
writing have a main verb. These verbs are expressed in "tenses"
which place everything in a point in time.
Verbs are conjugated (inflected)
to reflect how they are used. There are two general areas in which
conjugation occurs; for person and for tense.
Conjugation for tense
Conjugation for tense is carried out on all verbs. All conjugations start with the infinitive form of the verb. The infinitive is simply the to form of the verb For example, to begin. The present participle form (the -ing form), is formed by adding ing to the bare infinitive. For example, to begin - beginning. There are two other forms that the verb can take, depending on the tense type and time, the simple past form and the past participle.
The form of the verb or its tense
can tell when events take place.
For example, the verb kiss:
Conjugation for person
Conjugation for person occurs when the verb changes form, depending on whether it is governed by a first, second, or third person subject. This gives three conjugations for any verb depending on who is acting as the subject of the verb. For example: we have I begin, you begin , and he begins. Note that only the third conjunction really shows a difference.
In English, we distinguish between
regular and irregular verbs. Regular verbs are
those ones which form their past simple and past participle just by adding
"-ed" to the base of the verb. The rest are irregular.
Examples:
|
Finite Verb
Definition: Finite verbs (sometimes called
main verbs) are verb forms suitable for use in predicates in that they carry
inflections or other formal characteristics limiting their number(singular /
plural), person, and tense(past / present etc). Finite verbs can function on
their own as the core of an independent sentence.
For example
Examples
|
Infinitive
Definition: Infinitive is the base form of
the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form which follows
"to".
For example:
· (to) go,
(to) be,(to) ask, (to) fight, (to) understand, (to) walk .
Infinitives may occur with or
without the infinitive marker "to". Infinitives without
"to" are known as "bare infinitives".
For example:
· Help me open
the door.
OTHER FORMS
The infinitive can have the following forms:
NOTE: As with the present infinitive,
there are situations where the "to" is omitted.
Examples
|
Gerund
Definition: A gerund is the form of a
verb when it acts as a noun; a gerund (often known as an -ing word) is
a noun formed from a verb by adding -ing.
For example:
Formation: Base Form + ING
Gerunds can act as the subject or
object of a main verb.
For example:
Use
Certain words like adjectives, prepositions, verbs, nouns are followed by an Ing-Form.
Use after certain adjectives
Adjectives (with Prepositions) followed by the Gerund
For example:
Use after certain prepositions
Prepositions followed by the Gerund
For example:
Use after certain verbs
Verbs followed by the Gerund
For example:
Use after certain nouns
Nouns with Prepositions followed by the Gerund
For example:
Rules:
|
Ditransitive
Definition: A ditransitive verb is one that
takes two complements, a direct object and an indirect object at the same
time.
Examples
Examples
|
Dynamic Verb
Definition: A dynamic verb is one that can be
used in the progressive (continuous) aspect, indicating an unfinished action.
Dynamic verbs have duration, that is, they occur over time. This time may or
may not have a defined endpoint, and may or may not yet have occurred.
Dynamic verbs, can be used in the
simple and perfect forms, for example: plays, played, has played, had played,
as well as the continuous or progressive forms, for example: is playing, was
playing, has been playing, had been playing.
The progressive forms occur only
with dynamic verbs, that is, with verbs that show qualities capable of change
as opposed to stative verbs, which show qualities not capable of change.
For example:
Sometimes verbs can be used in progressive forms when
they have certain meanings. In another meaning it is not possible to use them
in progressive forms.
For example:
Examples:
|
Gender
Definition: A grammatical category in which a
noun, pronoun, article and adjective is masculine, feminine or neuter.
Genders in English are extremely simple, and in any case the gender of a noun
only affects its pronoun and possessive adjective.
For example:
In nouns
In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in English nouns. However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words.
Different words:
Different forms:
Some nouns can be used for either
a masculine or a feminine subject:
For example
It is possible to make the
distinction by adding the words "male" or "female".
For example
|
Imperative
Definition: Imperatives are verbs used to
give orders, commands,warning or instructions, and (if you use
"please") to make a request. It is one of the three moods of an
English verb (indicative, imperative and subjunctive).
For example:
To make the imperative, use the
infinitive of the verb without "to"
For example:
To make a negative imperative, put
"do not" or "don't" before the verb:
For example:
You can also use "let's"
before the verb if you are including yourself in the imperative. The negative
of "let's" is "let's not".
For example:
Orders
Adults do not usually give each other orders, unless they are in a position of authority. However, adults can give orders to children and to animals. The intonation of an order is important: each word is stressed, and the tone falls at the end of the sentence:
For
example:
Warnings
You can use the imperative to warn someone of danger. All the words in the warning are stressed, but the last word has a higher tone than the first word:
For
example:
Advice
When you give advice using the imperative, the words are stressed normally.
For
example:
Requests
You can also use the imperative to make a request, but you should use a polite word before the verb:
For
example:
Notes:
Note that an imperative sentence does not require a subject; the pronoun "you" is implied. |
Verbs in English have four basic
parts:
Base form
|
-ing form
|
Past tense
|
Past participle
|
work
|
working
|
worked
|
worked
|
play
|
playing
|
played
|
played
|
listen
|
listening
|
listened
|
listened
|
Most verbs have past tense and past
participle in –ed (worked, played, listened). But many of the
most frequent verbs are irregular.
question forms
We make questions by:
1: moving an auxiliary to the
front of the clause:
Everybody is
watching
|
>>
|
Is everybody watching?
|
They had
worked hard
|
>>
|
Had they worked hard?
|
He's
finished work
|
>>
|
Has he finished work?
|
Everybody had
been working hard
|
>>
|
Had everybody been working hard?
|
He has been
singing
|
>>
|
Has he been singing?
|
English is
spoken all over the world
|
>>
|
Is English spoken all over the world?
|
The
windows have been cleaned
|
>>
|
Have the windows been cleaned?
|
2: … or by moving a modal to the
front of the clause:
They will
come
|
>>
|
Will they come?
|
He might
come
|
>>
|
Might he come?
|
They will
have arrived by now
|
>>
|
Will they have arrived by now?
|
She would
have been listening
|
>>
|
Would she have been listening?
|
The work will
be finished soon
|
>>
|
Will the work be finished soon?
|
They might
have been invited to the party
|
>>
|
Might they have been invited to the
party?
|
3: The present simple and the past simple have no auxiliary. We make questions by adding the auxillary do/does for the present simple or did for the past simple:
They live
here
|
>>
|
Do they live here?
|
John lives
here
|
>>
|
Does John live here?
|
Everybody
laughed
|
>>
|
Did everybody laugh?
|
verb phrases
The verb phrase in English has the
following forms:
1) a main verb:
1) a main verb:
Verb
|
||
We
I Everybody We |
are
like saw. laughed. |
here.
it the accident |
The verb may be in the present tense (are, like) or the past tense (saw, laughed). A verb phrase with only a main verb expresses simple aspect
2) an auxiliary verb ("be") and a main verb in –ing form:
Auxiliary "be"
|
Verb (-ing)
|
|
Everybody
We |
is
were |
watching
laughing |
A verb phrase with "be" and –ing expresses continuous aspect.
3) an auxiliary verb ("have") and a main verb with past participle:
Auxillary "have"
|
Verb (past participle)
|
||
They
Everybody He |
have
has had |
enjoyed
worked finished |
themselves.
hard. work. |
A verb with "have" and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect, and a verb with had expresses past perfect.
4) an auxiliary verb ("have" + "been") and a main verb in the –ing form:
Auxiliary "have" + "been"
|
Verb (-ing)
|
||
Everybody
He |
has been
had been |
working
singing |
hard
|
A verb with "have" and "been" and the present participle expresses perfect continuous aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect continuous, and a verb with had expresses past perfect continuous.
5) a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) and a main verb:
Modal Verb
|
Main verb
|
|
They
He |
will
might |
come.
come. |
6) We can use modal verbs with the auxiliaries "be", "have", and "have been":
Modal
|
Auxiliary
|
Verb
|
|
They
He She |
will
might must |
be
have have been |
listening
arrived listening |
Activities
|
Active and passive:
Transitive
verbs have a passive form as well as an active form:
The hunter
killed the lion. (active) <> The lion was killed by the hunter. (passive)
Someone has
cleaned the windows <> The windows have been cleaned.
The passive forms are made up of the
verb "be" with a past participle:
"be"
|
Past participle
|
||
English
The windows Lunch The work They |
is
have been was being will be might have been |
spoken
cleaned served finished invited |
all
over the world
soon to the part |
present tense
There are two tenses in English –
past and present.
The present tenses in English are
used:
- to talk about the present
- to talk about the future
- to talk about the past when we are telling a story in spoken English or when we are summarising a book, film, play etc.
There are four present tense forms in English:
Present simple:
|
I work
|
Present
continuous:
|
I am
working
|
Present
perfect:
|
I have
worked
|
Present
perfect continuous:
|
I have
been working
|
We use these forms:
- to talk about the present:
He works at McDonald’s. He has
worked there for three months now.
He is working at McDonald’s. He has been working there for three months now.
London is the capital of Britain.
He is working at McDonald’s. He has been working there for three months now.
London is the capital of Britain.
- to talk about the future:
The next train leaves this
evening at 1700 hours.
I’ll phone you when I get home.
He’s meeting Peter in town this afternoon.
I’ll come home as soon as I have finished work.
You will be tired out after you have been working all night.
I’ll phone you when I get home.
He’s meeting Peter in town this afternoon.
I’ll come home as soon as I have finished work.
You will be tired out after you have been working all night.
- We can use the present tenses to talk about the past...
present simple
The present
tense is the base form of the verb: I work in London.
But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London.
But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London.
Use
We use the
present tense to talk about:
- something that is true in the present:
I’m nineteen
years old.
He lives in London.
I’m a student.
He lives in London.
I’m a student.
- something that happens again and again in the present:
I play football
every weekend.
We use words
like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs
of frequency) with the present tense:
I sometimes
go to the cinema.
She never plays football.
She never plays football.
- something that is always true:
The human
body contains 206 bones.
Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.
Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.
- something that is fixed in the future.
The school
terms starts next week.
The train leaves at 1945 this evening.
We fly to Paris next week.
The train leaves at 1945 this evening.
We fly to Paris next week.
Questions and negatives
Look at
these questions:
Do you play
the piano?
Where do you live?
Does Jack play football?
Where does he come from?
Do Rita and Angela live in Manchester?
Where do they work?
Where do you live?
Does Jack play football?
Where does he come from?
Do Rita and Angela live in Manchester?
Where do they work?
- With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.
We use
do and does with question words like where,
what and why:
But look at these questions with who:
But look at these questions with who:
Who lives in
London?
Who plays football at the weekend?
Who works at Liverpool City Hospital?
Who plays football at the weekend?
Who works at Liverpool City Hospital?
Look at
these sentences:
I like
tennis, but I don’t like football. (don’t = do not)
I don’t live in London now.
I don’t play the piano, but I play the guitar.
They don’t work at the weekend.
John doesn’t live in Manchester. (doesn’t = does not)
Angela doesn’t drive to work. She goes by bus.
I don’t live in London now.
I don’t play the piano, but I play the guitar.
They don’t work at the weekend.
John doesn’t live in Manchester. (doesn’t = does not)
Angela doesn’t drive to work. She goes by bus.
- With the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not (doesn’t) for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (don’t) for the others.
Complete
these sentences with don’t or doesn’t:
present continuous
The present continuous tense is
formed from the present tense of the verb be and the present
participle (-ing form) of a verb:
Use
1. We use the present continuous
tense to talk about the present:
- for something that is happening at the moment of speaking:
I’m just leaving work. I’ll
be home in an hour.
Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.
Please be quiet. The children are sleeping.
- for something which is happening before and after a given time:
At eight o’clock we are usually
having breakfast.
When I get home the children are doing their homework.
When I get home the children are doing their homework.
- for something which we think is temporary:
Michael is at university. He’s
studying history.
I’m working in London for the next two weeks.
I’m working in London for the next two weeks.
- for something which is new and contrasts with a previous state:
These days most people are
using email instead of writing letters.
What sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays? What sort of music are they listening to?
What sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays? What sort of music are they listening to?
- to show that something is changing, growing or developing:
The children are growing quickly.
The climate is changing rapidly.
Your English is improving.
The climate is changing rapidly.
Your English is improving.
- for something which happens again and again:
It’s always raining in
London.
They are always arguing.
George is great. He’s always laughing.
They are always arguing.
George is great. He’s always laughing.
Note: We normally use always with
this use.
2. We use the present continuous
tense to talk about the future:
- for something which has been arranged or planned:
Mary is going to a new school
next term.
What are you doing next week?
What are you doing next week?
3. We can use the present continuous
to talk about the past:
- When we are telling a story:
- When we are summarising the story from a book, film or play etc.:
present perfect
The present
perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and
the past participle of a verb:
The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb:
The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb:
Use
We use the
present perfect tense:
- for something that started in the past and continues in the present:
They’ve
been married for nearly fifty years.
She has lived in Liverpool all her life.
She has lived in Liverpool all her life.
Note: We normally use the present perfect
continuous for this:
She has
been living in Liverpool all her life.
It’s been raining for hours.
It’s been raining for hours.
- for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:
I’ve
played the guitar ever since I was a teenager.
He has written three books and he is working on another one.
I’ve been watching that programme every week.
He has written three books and he is working on another one.
I’ve been watching that programme every week.
We often use
a clause with since to show when something started in
the past:
They’ve
been staying with us since last week.
I have worked here since I left school.
I’ve been watching that programme every week since it started.
I have worked here since I left school.
I’ve been watching that programme every week since it started.
- when we are talking about our experience up to the present:
Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present:
My last
birthday was the worst day I have ever had.
Note: and we use never for the negative
form:
Have you ever met George?
Yes, but I’ve never met his wife.
Yes, but I’ve never met his wife.
- for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking:
I can’t get
in the house. I’ve lost my keys.
Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.
I’m tired out. I’ve been working all day.
Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.
I’m tired out. I’ve been working all day.
We use
the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place
and returned:
A: Where have
you been?
B: I’ve just been out to the supermarket.
B: I’ve just been out to the supermarket.
A: Have
you ever been to San Francisco?
B: No, but I’ve been to Los Angeles.
B: No, but I’ve been to Los Angeles.
But when
someone has not returned we use have/has gone:
A: Where is
Maria? I haven’t seen her for weeks.
B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She’ll be back tomorrow.
B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She’ll be back tomorrow.
We often use
the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent
past:
just; only
just; recently;
Scientists have
recently discovered a new breed of monkey.
We have just got back from our holidays.
We have just got back from our holidays.
or
adverbials which include the present:
ever (in questions); so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives)
Have you ever seen a ghost?
Where have you been up to now?
Have you finished your homework yet?
No, so far I’ve only done my history.
ever (in questions); so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives)
Have you ever seen a ghost?
Where have you been up to now?
Have you finished your homework yet?
No, so far I’ve only done my history.
WARNING:
We do not
use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past
time which is finished:
I have seen
that film yesterday.
We have just bought a new carlast week.
When we were children we have been to California.
We have just bought a new car
But we can
use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished:
Have you
seen Helen today?
We have bought a new car this week.
We have bought a new car this week.
past tense
There are two tenses in English –
past and present.
The past tense in English is used:
- to talk about the past
- to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true.
- for politeness.
There are four past tense
forms in English:
Past simple:
|
I worked
|
Past
continuous:
|
I was
working
|
Past
perfect:
|
I had
worked
|
Past
perfect continuous:
|
I had been
working
|
We use these forms:
- to talk about the past:
He worked at McDonald’s. He had
worked there since July..
He was working at McDonald’s. He had been working since July.
He was working at McDonald’s. He had been working since July.
- to refer to the present or future in conditions:
He could get a new job if he really tried.
If Jack was playing they would probably win.
If Jack was playing they would probably win.
and hypotheses:
It might be dangerous. Suppose they got
lost.
I would always help someone who really needed help.
I would always help someone who really needed help.
and wishes:
I wish it wasn’t so cold.
- In conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk about the past, we always use the past perfect:
I would have helped him if he had
asked.
It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
- We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite expressions:
Excuse me, I was wondering if
this was the train for York.
I just hoped you would be able to help me.
I just hoped you would be able to help me.
past simple
Forms
With most
verbs the past tense is formed by adding -ed:
call >> called; like >> liked; want >> wanted; work >> worked
But there are a lot of irregular past tenses in English. Her are the most common irregular verbs in English, with their past tenses:
call >> called; like >> liked; want >> wanted; work >> worked
But there are a lot of irregular past tenses in English. Her are the most common irregular verbs in English, with their past tenses:
infinitive
|
irregular past
|
be
begin break bring buy build choose come cost cut do draw drive eat feel find get give go have hear hold keep know leave lead let lie lose make mean meet pay put run say sell send set sit speak spend stand take teach tell think understand wear win write |
was/were
began broke brought bought built chose came cost cut did drew drove ate felt found got gave went had heard held kept knew left led let lay lost made meant met paid put ran said sold sent set sat spoke spent stood took taught told thought understood wore won wrote |
Use
We use the
past tense to talk about:
- something that happened once in the past:
I met my
wife in 1983.
We went to Spain for our holidays.
They got home very late last night.
We went to Spain for our holidays.
They got home very late last night.
- something that happened again and again in the past:
When I was a
boy I walked a mile to school every day.
We swam a lot while we were on holiday.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
We swam a lot while we were on holiday.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
- something that was true for some time in the past:
I lived abroad
for ten years.
He enjoyed being a student.
She played a lot of tennis when she was younger.
He enjoyed being a student.
She played a lot of tennis when she was younger.
- we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:
I met
my wife a long time ago.
Questions and negatives
We use did
to make questions with the past tense:
When did
you meet your wife?
Where did you go for your holidays?
Did she play tennis when she was younger?
Did you live abroad?
Where did you go for your holidays?
Did she play tennis when she was younger?
Did you live abroad?
But look at
these questions:
Who
discovered penicillin?
Who wrote Don Quixote?
Who wrote Don Quixote?
For more on
these questions see question forms
We use didn’t (did not) to make negatives with the past tense:
We use didn’t (did not) to make negatives with the past tense:
They didn’t
go to Spain this year.
We didn’t get home until very late last night.
I didn’t see you yesterday.
We didn’t get home until very late last night.
I didn’t see you yesterday.
past continuous
The past continuous is formed from
the past tense of be with the -ing form of the
verb:
We use the past continuous to talk
about the past:
- for something which continued before and after another action:
The children were doing their
homework when I got home.
Compare:
and
The children did their homework when I got home.
This use of the past continuous is very common at the beginning of a story:
The other day I was waiting for
a bus when …
Last week as I was driving to work …
Last week as I was driving to work …
- for something that happened before and after a particular time:
It was eight o’clock. I was writing
a letter.
Compare:
At eight o’clock I wrote some letters.
Compare:
At eight o’clock I wrote some letters.
In July she was working in
McDonald’s.
- .to show that something continued for some time:
My head was aching.
Everyone was shouting.
Everyone was shouting.
- for something that was happening again and again:
I was practising every day,
three times a day.
They were meeting secretly after school.
They were always quarrelling.
They were meeting secretly after school.
They were always quarrelling.
- with verbs which show change or growth:
The children were growing up
quickly.
Her English was improving.
My hair was going grey.
The town was changing quickly.
Her English was improving.
My hair was going grey.
The town was changing quickly.
past perfect
We use the verb had and
the past participle for the past perfect:
I had finished the work.
She had gone .
She had gone .
The past perfect continuous is
formed with had been and the -ing form of
the verb:
I had been finishing
the work
She had been going.
She had been going.
The past perfect is used in the same
way as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in the past, not the
present.
We use the past perfect tense:
- for something that started in the past and continued up to a given time in the past:
When George died he and Anne had
been married for nearly fifty years.
She didn’t want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life.
She didn’t want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life.
We normally use the past perfect continuous
for this:
She didn’t want to move. She had
been living in Liverpool all her life.
Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.
Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.
- for something we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to do after that point:
He was a wonderful guitarist. He had
been playing ever since he was a teenager.
He had written three books and he was working on another one.
I had been watching the programme every week, but I missed the last episode.
He had written three books and he was working on another one.
I had been watching the programme every week, but I missed the last episode.
We often use a clause with since
to show when something started in the past:
They had been staying with us since
the previous week.
I was sorry when the factory closed. I had worked there since I left school.
I had been watching that programme every week since it started, but I missed the last episode.
I was sorry when the factory closed. I had worked there since I left school.
I had been watching that programme every week since it started, but I missed the last episode.
- when we are reporting our experience and including up to the (then) present:
My eighteenth birthday was the worst
day I had ever had.
I was pleased to meet George. I hadn’t met him before, even though I had met his wife several times.
I was pleased to meet George. I hadn’t met him before, even though I had met his wife several times.
- for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting:
I couldn’t get into the house. I
had lost my keys.
Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.
Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.
We use the past perfect to talk
about the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes:
I would have helped him if he
had asked.
It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost?
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
perfective aspect
We use the present perfect to
show that something has continued up to the present
They’ve been married for
nearly fifty years.
She has lived in Liverpool all her life.
She has lived in Liverpool all her life.
… or is important in the present:
I’ve lost my keys. I can’t
get into the house.
Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.
Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping.
We use the present perfect
continuous to show that something has been continuing up to the present:
It’s been raining for hours.
We’ve been waiting here since six o’clock this morning.
We’ve been waiting here since six o’clock this morning.
We use the past perfect to
show that something continued up to a time in the past:
When George died he and Anne had
been married for nearly fifty years.
... or was important at that time in
the past:
I couldn’t get into the house. I had
lost my keys.
Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.
Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping.
We use the past perfect
continuous to show that something had been continuing up to a time in the
past or was important at that time in the past:
Everything was wet. It had been
raining for hours.
He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager.
He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager.
We use will with the
perfect to show that something will be complete at some time in the future:
In a few years they will have
discovered a cure for the common cold.
I can come out tonight. I'll have finished my homework by then.
I can come out tonight. I'll have finished my homework by then.
We use would with the
perfect to refer to something that did not happen in the past but would
have happened if the conditions had been right:
If you had asked me I would have helped you.
I would have helped you, but you didn’t ask me.
You didn’t ask me or I would have helped you.
I would have helped you, but you didn’t ask me.
You didn’t ask me or I would have helped you.
We use other modals with
perfective aspect when we are looking back from a point in time when
something might have happened, should have happened or would have happened.
The point of time may be in the
future:
We’ll meet again next week. We might
have finished the work by then.
I will phone at six o’clock. He should have got home by then.
I will phone at six o’clock. He should have got home by then.
the present:
It’s getting late. They should
have arrived by now.
He’s still not here. He must have missed his train.
He’s still not here. He must have missed his train.
or the past:
I wasn’t feeling well. I must
have eaten something bad.
I checked my cell phone. She could have left a message.
I checked my cell phone. She could have left a message.
continuous aspect
Both tenses have a continuous
form. These continuous tenses are formed with the verb be
and the –ing form of the verb:
We use continuous aspect:
- for something happening before and after a given time.
He’s getting on the train. [before
and after the moment of speaking]
It was quarter past ten. We were watching the news on television.
It was quarter past ten. We were watching the news on television.
- for something continuing before and after another action:
Mother will be cooking the
dinner when we get home.
We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
- for something continuing for some time:
Everybody will be waiting for
us.
They had been working hard all day.
They had been working hard all day.
- for something happening again and again:
They’ve been doing that every
day this week.
The children were always shouting.
He will be practising the piano every night.
The children were always shouting.
He will be practising the piano every night.
- for something temporary:
We are renting an apartment
until our house is ready..
He was working in a garage during the vacation.
He was working in a garage during the vacation.
- for something new:
We have moved from Birmingham. We’re
living in Manchester now.
He had left university and was working in his father’s business.
He had left university and was working in his father’s business.
- to describe something changing or developing:
Everything has been getting more
difficult.
He was growing more bad-tempered every day.
He was growing more bad-tempered every day.
active and passive voice
Transitive verbs have both active and passive
forms:
active
|
Passive
|
|
The hunter
killed the lion.
|
>>
|
The lion
was killed by the hunter.
|
Someone
has cleaned the windows
|
>>
|
The
windows have been cleaned
|
The passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle:
be
|
past participle
|
||
English
|
is
|
spoken
|
all over
the world
|
The
windows
|
have been
|
cleaned
|
|
Lunch
|
was being
|
served
|
|
The work
|
will be
|
finished
|
Soon
|
They
|
might have
been
|
invited
|
to the
party
|
We sometimes use the verb get to form the passive:
Be careful with the glass. It might get
broken.
Peter got hurt in a crash.
Peter got hurt in a crash.
If we want to show the person or
thing doing the action we use by:
She was attacked by a
dangerous dog.
The money was stolen by her husband.
The money was stolen by her husband.
We can use the indirect object as
the subject of a passive verb:
active
|
passive
|
|
I gave him
a book for his birthday
|
>>
|
He was
given a book for his birthday.
|
Someone
sent her a cheque for a thousand euros
|
>>
|
She was
sent a cheque for a thousand euros.
|
We can use phrasal verbs in the passive:
active
|
Passive
|
|
They called
off the meeting.
|
>>
|
The
meeting was called off.
|
His
grandmother looked after him.
|
>>
|
He was
looked after by his grandmother.
|
They will
send him away to school.
|
>>
|
He will
be sent away to school.
|
Some verbs very frequently used
in the passive are followed by the to-infinitive:
be supposed
to
|
be
expected to
|
be asked
to
|
be
scheduled to
|
be allowed
to
|
be told to
|
John has been asked to make a
speech at the meeting.
You are supposed to wear a uniform.
The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.
You are supposed to wear a uniform.
The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.
to + infinitive
We use the to-infinitive:
• to express purpose (to
answer "Why...?"):
He bought some flowers to give
to his wife.
He locked the door to keep everyone out.
He locked the door to keep everyone out.
We sometimes say in order to or
in order not to:
We set off early in order to
avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children
They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children
… or we can say so as to or
so as not to:
We set off early so as to
avoid the traffic.
They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.
They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.
• after certain verbs (see verbs followed by infinitive), particularly verbs of thinking
and feeling:
choose, decide, expect, forget,
hate, hope, intend, learn, like,
love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love
love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love
… and verbs of saying:
agree, promise, refuse
They decided to start a
business together.
Remember to turn the lights out.
Remember to turn the lights out.
advise, ask, encourage, invite,
order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,
expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like
expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like
She reminded me to turn
the lights out.
He encouraged his friends to vote for him.
He encouraged his friends to vote for him.
• after certain adjectives.
Sometimes the to-infinitive
gives a reason for the adjective:
- disappointed
- glad
- sad
- happy
- anxious
- pleased
- surprised
- proud
- unhappy
We were happy to come to the
end of our journey
= We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey
John was surprised to see me
= He was surprised because he saw me
= We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey
John was surprised to see me
= He was surprised because he saw me
Other adjectives with the to-infinitive
are:
- able
- unable
- due
- eager
- keen
- likely
- unlikely
- ready
- prepared
- unwilling
- willing
Unfortunately I was unable to
work for over a week.
I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed.
I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed.
We often use the to-infinitive
with these adjectives after it to give opinions:
- difficult
- easy
- possible
- impossible
- hard
- right
- wrong
- kind
- nice
- clever
- silly
- foolish
It’s easy to play the piano,
but it’s very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.
We use the preposition for to
show who these adjectives refer to:
- difficult
- easy
- possible
- impossible
- hard
It was difficult for us
to hear what she was saying.
It is easy for you to criticise other people.
It is easy for you to criticise other people.
We use the preposition of with
other adjectives:
It’s kind of you to help.
It would be silly of him to spend all his money.
It would be silly of him to spend all his money.
• As a postmodifier (see noun
phrases) after abstract nouns like:
- ability
- desire
- need
- wish
- attempt
- failure
- opportunity
- chance
- intention
I have no desire to be rich.
They gave him an opportunity to escape.
She was annoyed by her failure to answer the question correctly.
They gave him an opportunity to escape.
She was annoyed by her failure to answer the question correctly.
• We often use a to-infinitive
as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun (See indefinite pronouns):
When I am travelling I always take something
to read.
I was all alone. I had no one to talk to.
There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.
I was all alone. I had no one to talk to.
There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.
-ing forms
We can use the -ing
form of the verb:
• as a noun:
I love swimming.
Swimming is very good for your health.
You can get fit by swimming regularly.
-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns
Swimming is very good for your health.
You can get fit by swimming regularly.
-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns
- as an adjective:
The main problem today is rising prices.
That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.
That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.
Because the -ing noun
or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which
follow a verb, for example:
- ... an object:
I like playing tennis.
I saw a dog chasing a cat.
I saw a dog chasing a cat.
- ... or an adverbial:
You can earn a lot of money by
working hard.
There were several people waiting for the bus.
There were several people waiting for the bus.
- ... or a clause:
I heard someone saying that.
The -ing noun can be
used:
- as the subject of a verb:
Learning English is not easy.
- as the object of a verb:
We enjoy learning English.
Common verbs followed by an -ing
object are:
admit
|
like
|
hate
|
start
|
avoid
|
suggest
|
enjoy
|
dislike
|
begin
|
finish
|
- as the object of a preposition
Some people are not interested in
learning English.
The -ing adjective can
come:
- in front of a noun:
I read an interesting article
in the newspaper today.
We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.
We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.
The commonest –ing adjectives
used in front of the noun are
amusing
|
interesting
|
worrying
|
shocking
|
disappointing
|
boring
|
surprising
|
exciting
|
terrifying
|
frightening
|
tiring
|
annoying
|
- after a noun:
Who is that man standing over
there?
The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.
The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.
- and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.
I heard someone playing the
piano.
I can smell something burning.
I can smell something burning.
talking about the present
1. We use the present simple:
- to talk about something happening regularly in the present:
The children
come home from school at about four.
We often see your brother at work.
We often see your brother at work.
- to talk about something happening continually in the present:
They live
next door to us.
He works for the Post Office.
He works for the Post Office.
- to talk about things which are generally true:
Water boils
at 100 degrees Celsius.
The Nile is the longest river in Africa.
The Nile is the longest river in Africa.
2. We use the present continuous:
- to show that something in the present is temporary:
We are
living in a rented flat at present.
My wife usually goes in to the office, but she is working at home today.
My wife usually goes in to the office, but she is working at home today.
- for something happening regularly in the present before and after a given time:
I’m
usually getting ready for work at eight o’clock.
When I see George he’s always reading his newspaper.
When I see George he’s always reading his newspaper.
- for something happening before and after the moment of speaking:
I can’t hear
you. I’m listening to my iPod.
Be quiet. The children are sleeping.
Be quiet. The children are sleeping.
3. We use modal verbs
- to talk about the present when we are not sure of something:
I don’t know
where Henry is. He might be playing tennis.
Who’s knocking at the door? I don’t know. It could be the police.
Who’s knocking at the door? I don’t know. It could be the police.
talking about the past
1 Talking about past events and situations:
We use the past
simple:
- when we are talking about an event that happened at a particular time in the past
We arrived
home before dark
The film started at seven thirty.
The film started at seven thirty.
- when we are talking about something that continued for some time in the past
Everybody worked
hard through the winter.
We stayed with our friends in London.
We stayed with our friends in London.
When we are
talking about something that happened several times in the past we use
- the past simple:
Most
evenings we stayed at home and watched DVDs.
Sometimes they went out for a meal.
Sometimes they went out for a meal.
- … or used to
Most evenings
we used to stay at home and watch DVDs.
We used to go for a swim every morning.
We used to go for a swim every morning.
- ... or would
Most
evenings he would take the dog for a walk.
They would often visit friends in Europe.
They would often visit friends in Europe.
WARNING: We
do not normally use would with stative verbs.
We use the past continuous:
We use the past continuous:
- when we are talking about something which happened before and after a given time in the past
It was just
after ten. I was watching the news on TV.
At half-time we were losing 1-0.
At half-time we were losing 1-0.
- when we are talking about something happening before and after another action in the past:
He broke his
leg when he was playing rugby.
She saw Jim as he was driving away.
She saw Jim as he was driving away.
2 The past in the past
When we are looking
back from a point in the past to something earlier in the past we
use the past perfect:
Helen
suddenly remembered she had left her keys in the car.
When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home.
They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadn’t saved enough money.
They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.
When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home.
They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadn’t saved enough money.
They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.
3 The past and the present:
We use the present
perfect:
- when we are talking about the effects in the present of something that happened in the past:
I can’t open
the door. I’ve left my keys in the car.
Jenny has found a new job. She works in a supermarket now.
Jenny has found a new job. She works in a supermarket now.
- When we are talking about something that started in the past and still goes on:
We have
lived here since 2007. (and we still live here)
I have been working at the university for over ten years.
I have been working at the university for over ten years.
4 The future in the past
When we talk
about the future from a time in the past we use:
- would as the past tense of will
He thought
he would buy one the next day.
Everyone was excited. The party would be fun.
Everyone was excited. The party would be fun.
- was/were going to
John was
going to drive and Mary was going to follow on her bicycle.
It was Friday. We were going to set off the next day.
It was Friday. We were going to set off the next day.
- the past continuous:
It was
September. Mary was starting school the next week.
We were very busy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.
We were very busy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.
talking about the future
1. When we know about the future
we normally use the present tense.
- We use the present simple for something scheduled or arranged:
We have a lesson next Monday.
The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning.
The holidays start next week.
It is my birthday tomorrow.
The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning.
The holidays start next week.
It is my birthday tomorrow.
- We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements:
I’m playing football tomorrow.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We’re having a party at Christmas.
They are coming to see us tomorrow.
We’re having a party at Christmas.
2. We use will to talk about
the future:
- When we make predictions:
It will be a nice day tomorrow.
I think Brazil will win the World Cup.
I’m sure you will enjoy the film.
I think Brazil will win the World Cup.
I’m sure you will enjoy the film.
- To mean want to or be willing to:
I hope you will come to my
party.
George says he will help us.
George says he will help us.
- To make offers and promises:
I'll see you tomorrow.
We'll send you an email.
We'll send you an email.
- To talk about offers and promises:
Tim will be at the meeting.
Mary will help with the cooking.
Mary will help with the cooking.
3. We use (be) going to:
- To talk about plans and intentions:
I’m going to drive to work today.
They are going to move to Manchester.
They are going to move to Manchester.
- When we can see that something is likely to happen:
Be careful! You are going to fall.
Look at those black clouds. I think it’s going to rain.
Look at those black clouds. I think it’s going to rain.
4. We often use verbs like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, expect to talk about the future:
What are you going to do next year? I’d
like to go to University.
We plan to go to France for our holidays.
George wants to buy a new car.
We plan to go to France for our holidays.
George wants to buy a new car.
5. We use modals may, might,
and could when we are not sure about the future:
I might stay at home tonight, or I might go to
the cinema.
We could see Mary at the meeting. She sometimes goes.
We could see Mary at the meeting. She sometimes goes.
6. We can use should if
we think something is likely to happen:
We should be home in time for tea.
The game should be over by eight o’clock.
The game should be over by eight o’clock.
7. Clauses with time words:
In clauses with time words like when,
after, and until we often use a present
tense form to talk about the future:
I’ll come home when I finish work.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.
8. Clauses with if:
In clauses with if we
often use a present tense form to talk about the future:
We won’t be able to go out if it
rains.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
WARNING: We do not normally use will in
clauses with if or with time words:
I’ll come home when I will
finish work.
We won’t be able to go out if itwill rain rains.
We won’t be able to go out if it
But we can use will if it
means a promise or offer:
I will be very happy if you will
come to my party.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.
9. We can use the future
continuous instead of the present continuous or going to for emphasis when
we are talking about plans, arrangements and intentions:
They’ll be coming to see us next week.
I will be driving to work tomorrow.
I will be driving to work tomorrow.
verbs in time clauses and if
clause
Verbs in time
clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other
clauses except:
- In clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:
I’ll come
home when I finish work.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.
You must wait here until your father comes.
They are coming after they have had dinner.
- in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:
We won’t be
able to go out if it is raining.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.
If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions.
I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children.
- We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:
I’ll come
home when I will finish work.
We won’t be able to go out if itwill rain. rains.
It will be nice to see Peter when hewill get home gets home.
You must wait here until you fatherwill come comes.
We won’t be able to go out if it
It will be nice to see Peter when he
You must wait here until you father
- but we can use will if it means a promise or offer:
I will be
very happy if you will come to my party.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.
We should finish the job early if George will help us.
"if" clauses and hypotheses
Some clauses
with if are like hypotheses so we use past tense
forms to talk about the present and future.
We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if :
We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if :
- for something that has not happened or is not happening:
He could
get a new job if he really tried
|
=
|
He cannot
get a job because he has not tried.
|
If Jack was playing they would probably win
|
=
|
Jack is
not playing so they will probably not win.
|
If I had his address I could write to him
|
=
|
I do not
have his address so I cannot write to him.
|
We use
the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if:
- for something that we believe or know will not happen:
We would
go by train if it wasn’t so expensive
|
=
|
We won’t
go by train because it is too expensive.
|
I
would look after the children for you at the weekend if I was at home
|
=
|
I can’t
look after the children because I will not be at home.
|
- to make suggestions about what might happen:
If he came
tomorrow we could borrow his car.
If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela.
If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela.
When we are
talking about something which did not happen in the past we use
the past perfect in the if clause and a modal verb
in the main clause:
If you had
seen him you could have spoken to him
|
=
|
You did
not see him so you could not speak to him
|
You could
have stayed with us if you had come to London
|
=
|
You
couldn’t stay with us because you didn’t come to London.
|
If we
hadn’t spent all our money we could take a holiday.
|
=
|
We have
spent all our money so we can’t take a holiday
|
If I had
got the job we would be living in Paris
|
=
|
I did not
get the job so we are not living in Paris.
|
If the
main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:
If you had
seen him you could have spoken to him.
|
=
|
You did
not see him so you could not speak to him.
|
You could have stayed with us if you had come to London.
|
=
|
You
couldn’t stay with us because you didn’t come to London.
|
If you had
invited me I might have come.
|
=
|
You didn’t
invite me so I didn’t come.
|
If the main
clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal
without have:
If I had
got the job we would be
living in Paris
now.
|
=
|
I did not
get the job so we are not living in Paris now.
|
If you had
done your homework you would know the answer.
|
=
|
You did
not do your homework so you do not know the answer.
|
wishes and hypotheses
Wishes
We use
past tense forms to talk about wishes:
- We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:
I don’t like
my work. I wish I could get a better job.
That’s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.
That’s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.
I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.
- We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:
I don’t like
this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
Everyone wishes they had more free time.
John wishes he wasn’t so busy.
I wish it wasn’t so cold.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
Everyone wishes they had more free time.
John wishes he wasn’t so busy.
I wish it wasn’t so cold.
- We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:
I wish I had
worked harder when
I was at school.
Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.
I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.
Hypotheses (things that we imagine)
When we are
talking about hypotheses:
- We use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk about the future if we think it is likely to happen:
Those steps
are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident.
We should leave home early in case we are late.
We should leave home early in case we are late.
- We use a past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to suggest something is not likely to happen:
It might be
dangerous. Suppose they got lost.
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
- We use modals would, could for a hypothesis about the future:
We can’t all
stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.
Drive carefully. You could have an accident.
Drive carefully. You could have an accident.
- We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk about the imagined future:
I would
always help someone who
really needed help.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
I would always help someone if they really needed it.
- We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the past:
I did not
see Mary, or I might have spoken to her.
It’s a pity Jack wasn’t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party.
Why didn’t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.
It’s a pity Jack wasn’t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party.
Why didn’t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.
the verb be
The verb be has the
following forms:
Present
simple:
|
Affirmative
|
I am
You are He/She/It is |
We are
You are They are |
Question
form:
|
Am I?
Are you? Is he/she it? |
Are we?
Are you? Are they? |
|
Negative:
|
I am not/
I’m not
You are not/ aren’t He/She/It is not/ isn’t |
We are
not/aren’t
You are not/aren’t They are not/aren't |
|
Past
simple
|
I was
You were He/She/It was |
We were
You were They were |
|
The past
participle:
|
been.
|
||
Present
perfect:
|
has/have
been
|
||
Past
perfect:
|
had been
|
The verb be is
used in the following patterns:
1. with a noun:
My mother is a teacher.
Bill Clinton was the president of the US.
Bill Clinton was the president of the US.
2. with an adjective:
This soup is very tasty.
The children were good.
The children were good.
2.1 with the -ing form
to make the continuous aspect
We were walking down the
street.
Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.
Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours.
2.2 with the -ed form
to make the passive voice
The house was built in 1890.
The street is called Montagu Street.
This car was made in Japan.
The street is called Montagu Street.
This car was made in Japan.
3. with a prepositional phrase:
John and his wife are from
Manchester.
The flowers are on the table.
The flowers are on the table.
link verbs
Some verbs are followed by either a
noun or an adjective:
She was a
good friend.
|
=
|
N +
V + N
|
She was
very happy.
|
=
|
N +
V + Adj.
|
He became
headmaster.
|
=
|
N +
V + N
|
He became
angry.
|
=
|
N +
V + Adj.
|
These verbs are called link verbs. Common verbs like this are:
- be
- become
- appear
- feel
- look
- remain
- seem
- sound
She seemed an intelligent
woman.
She seemed intelligent.
He looked hungry.
He looked a good player.
She seemed intelligent.
He looked hungry.
He looked a good player.
After appear and seem
we often use to be:
She appeared to be an
intelligent woman.
He seemed to be angry.
He seemed to be angry.
Some link verbs are followed by an adjective.
Common verbs like this are:
- get
- go
- grow
- taste
- smell
He got hungry in the evening.
She grew stronger every day.
She grew stronger every day.
delexical verbs like have, take, make and give
Patterns with common verbs and
nouns?
We often use common verbs like have
and take with nouns like a shower, a
drink:
I took a shower = I showered.
She had a drink = She drank something.
She had a drink = She drank something.
We call these delexical verbs because
the important part of the meaning is taken out of the verb and
put into the noun.
We often put adjectives in front of
the noun:
I took a cold shower.
She had a nice, refreshing drink.
She had a nice, refreshing drink.
The verbs used most frequently in
this way are:
- have
- take
- make
- give
We also use go and do
as delexical verbs, but they have different patterns:
Shall we go swimming
this afternoon? Or shall we go for a walk?
It’s your turn to do the cooking.
I’ll have to do my hair before the party.
It’s your turn to do the cooking.
I’ll have to do my hair before the party.
• We use have with:
Food and drink: a meal; breakfast, lunch, dinner, a
snack, a cup of tea
Talking: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk,
Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub
Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest
Disagreeing: argument, dispute, fight, quarrel
Talking: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk,
Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub
Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest
Disagreeing: argument, dispute, fight, quarrel
I had a good breakfast before
I left home.
We had a long talk about the problem.
The kids should have a bath before they go to bed.
She generally had a short holiday in July or August.
They had a serious quarrel about their father’s will.
We had a long talk about the problem.
The kids should have a bath before they go to bed.
She generally had a short holiday in July or August.
They had a serious quarrel about their father’s will.
• We use take with:
Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash
Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest
Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest
I always take a cold shower in
the morning
You look tired. You need to take a break.
You look tired. You need to take a break.
… and with these words:
care, care of, a chance, a risk, a
decision, a photograph,
trouble, a turn, turns
trouble, a turn, turns
We took hundreds of photographs on holiday.
Jane always takes a lot of trouble with her homework.
• We also use have and
take with nouns formed from verbs:
I think you should have a look at
this.
She took a bite of the cake.
I’m thirsty. I’m going to have a drink of water.
I had a listen to that new CD in the car.
They are going to have a swim.
She took a bite of the cake.
I’m thirsty. I’m going to have a drink of water.
I had a listen to that new CD in the car.
They are going to have a swim.
• We use give with:
Noises: a cry, a laugh, a scream, a shout,
a whistle
Facial expressions: a smile, a grin, a look, a glance
Hitting: a kick, a punch, a slap, a push, a knock, a blow
Affectionate actions: a hug, a kiss, a stroke,
Talking: advice, an answer, information, an interview, a lecture, some news, a report, a speech, a talk, a warning.
Facial expressions: a smile, a grin, a look, a glance
Hitting: a kick, a punch, a slap, a push, a knock, a blow
Affectionate actions: a hug, a kiss, a stroke,
Talking: advice, an answer, information, an interview, a lecture, some news, a report, a speech, a talk, a warning.
She gave a loud laugh.
John gave a happy smile.
He gave me a nasty kick on the leg.
She gave the children a goodnight kiss and put them to bed.
I have to give a speech at the meeting tomorrow.
John gave a happy smile.
He gave me a nasty kick on the leg.
She gave the children a goodnight kiss and put them to bed.
I have to give a speech at the meeting tomorrow.
• We use make with:
Talking: and sounds: a comment, an enquiry, a
noise, a point, a promise, a sound, a speech, a suggestion
Plans: arrangements, a choice, a decision, a plan, plans
Travel: a journey, a trip, a tour of, a visit to
Plans: arrangements, a choice, a decision, a plan, plans
Travel: a journey, a trip, a tour of, a visit to
• We use go with an -ing
verb or for common activities:
We usually go walking at the
weekend.
He goes running every evening after supper.
Mum’s out. She’s gone shopping.
He goes running every evening after supper.
Mum’s out. She’s gone shopping.
• We use go for a with
a verb for common activities that involve moving:
a jog, a ride, a swim, a run, a
stroll, a walk
I want to get out of here. Let’s go
for a walk.
He’s gone for a ride on his bike.
He’s gone for a ride on his bike.
• We use do the with -ing
nouns to do with work, especially work in the house, and with other
nouns to do with work:
It’s your turn to do the cooking.
You do the washing up and I’ll do the drying.
I need to do a few jobs around the house.
I can’t come out this evening. I have a lot of work to do.
You do the washing up and I’ll do the drying.
I need to do a few jobs around the house.
I can’t come out this evening. I have a lot of work to do.
• We use do with nouns
when it is obvious what the action is:
I’ll have to do my hair before
we go out [= I’ll have to brush my hair.]
Have you done your teeth? [= Have you cleaned your teeth?]
Have you done your teeth? [= Have you cleaned your teeth?]
A question like:
Have you done the car?
could mean:
Have you washed the car?
or
Have you mended the car?
or
Have you filled the car with petrol?
or
Have you mended the car?
or
Have you filled the car with petrol?
depending on the context.
Modal verbs
The modal verbs are:
can
|
could
|
may
|
might
|
shall
|
should
|
will
|
would
|
We use modals verbs to
show if we believe something is certain, probable or possible (or not). We
also use modals to do things like talking about ability, asking permission
making requests and offers, and so on.
- certain, probable or possible
- ability, permission, requests and advice
- modals + have
- can, could and could have
- may, might, may have and might have
- can or could
- will or would
- will have or would have
certain, probable or possible
The modal
verbs are can, could, may, might,
shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to show that we believe something is certain, probable or possible:
The modals are used to show that we believe something is certain, probable or possible:
Possibility:
We use the
modals could, might and may to show
that something is possible in the future, but not certain:
They might
come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.)
They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)
If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.)
If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could
have, might have and may have to show that
something was possible now or at some time in the past:
It’s ten
o’clock. They might have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
They could have arrived hours ago.
We use the
modal can to make general statements about what is
possible:
It can be
very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use the
modal could as the past tense of can:
It could
be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)
You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)
You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)
Impossibility:
We use the
negative can’t or cannot to show that something is
impossible:
That can’t
be true.
You cannot be serious.
You cannot be serious.
We use couldn’t/could
not to talk about the past:
We knew it could
not be true.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
Probability:
We use the
modal must to show we are sure something to be true and we
have reasons for our belief:
It’s getting
dark. It must be quite late.
You haven’t eaten all day. You must be hungry.
You haven’t eaten all day. You must be hungry.
We use must
have for the past:
They hadn’t
eaten all day. They must have been hungry.
You look happy. You must have heard the good news.
You look happy. You must have heard the good news.
We use the
modal should to suggest that something is true or will be
true in the future, and to show you have reasons for your suggestion:
Ask Miranda.
She should know.
It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon.
It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon.
We use should
have to talk about the past:
It's nearly
eleven o'clock. They should have arrived by now.
ability, permission, requests
and advice
The modal
verbs are can, could, may, might,
shall, should, will and would.
The modals are used to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making requests, and so on.
The modals are used to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making requests, and so on.
Ability:
We use can
to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:
She can
speak several languages.
He can swim like a fish.
They can’t dance very well.
He can swim like a fish.
They can’t dance very well.
We use can
to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present
or future:
You can
make a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. I can’t breathe.
They can run but they can’t hide.
Help. I can’t breathe.
They can run but they can’t hide.
We use could
to talk about past time:
She could
speak several languages.
They couldn’t dance very well.
They couldn’t dance very well.
We use could
have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something,
but did not do it:
She could
have learned Swahili, but she didn’t have time.
I could have danced all night [but didn't].
I could have danced all night [but didn't].
Permission:
We use can
to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please?
Can we go home now.
Can we go home now.
could is more formal and polite than
can:
Could I ask a question please?
Could we go home now?
Could we go home now?
may is another more formal and
polite way of asking for permission:
May I ask a question please?
May we go home now?
May we go home now?
We use can
to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
may is a more formal and polite
way of giving permission:
You may go home now, if you like.
We use can
to say that someone has permission to do something:
We can go
out whenever we
want.
Students can travel free.
Students can travel free.
may is a more formal and polite
way of saying that someone has permission:
Students may
travel free.
Instructions and requests:
We use could
you and would you as polite ways of telling or asking
someone to do something:
Could you
take a message
please?
Would you carry this for me please?
Could I have my bill please?
Would you carry this for me please?
Could I have my bill please?
can and will are less
polite:
Can you take
a message
please?
Will you carry this for me please?
Will you carry this for me please?
Suggestions and advice:
We use should
to make suggestions and give advice:
You should
send an email.
We should go by train.
We should go by train.
We use could
to make suggestions:
We could
meet at the weekend.
You could eat out tonight.
You could eat out tonight.
We use conditionals
to give advice:
Dan will
help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
Dan would
help you if you asked him.
Offers and invitations:
We use can
I… and to make offers:
Can I help you?
Can I do that for you?
Can I do that for you?
We can also
use shall I …
Shall I help
you with
that?
Shall I call you on your mobile?
Shall I call you on your mobile?
We sometime
say I can ... or I could ... or I’ll
(I will) ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
I’ll do that for you if you like.
I’ll give you a lift to the station.
I can give you a lift to the station.
I’ll do that for you if you like.
I’ll give you a lift to the station.
We use would
you like (to) ... for invitations:
Would you
like to come round
to morrow?
Would you like another drink?
Would you like another drink?
We use you
must or we must for a very polite invitation:
You must
come round and
see us.
We must meet again soon.
We must meet again soon.
Obligation and necessity
We use must to say
that it is necessary to do something:
You must stop at a red light.
Everyone must bring something to eat.
You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy.
I’m sorry, but you mustn’t make a noise in here.
We use had to for this if we are talking about the past:
Everyone had to bring something to eat.
We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.
You must stop at a red light.
Everyone must bring something to eat.
You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy.
I’m sorry, but you mustn’t make a noise in here.
We use had to for this if we are talking about the past:
Everyone had to bring something to eat.
We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.
modals + have
We use a modal verb with have and
the past participle:
Subject
|
Modal
|
Have
|
Past
Participle
|
|
They
|
will
|
have
|
arrived
|
by now
|
You
|
might
|
have
|
seen
|
the film
|
Jack and
Jill
|
would
|
have
|
been
|
late
|
We use a modal verb
with have to refer back:
- … from a point of time in the past:
We were very worried. Someone might
have taken the car.
- … from the present
It is nearly eight o’clock. They will
have arrived by now.
- …or from the future:
We won’t eat until they arrive. They
might not have had supper.
- or to refer to past time:
You should have helped her
when she asked.
They might have got lost. Nobody knows where they are.
They might have got lost. Nobody knows where they are.
can, could and could have
Questions and negatives:
We make questions
by putting the subject after can/could:
Can I …? Can
you …? Could I … Could you …? and so on.
The negative
form is can’t in spoken English and cannot in
written English.
We sometimes say cannot, but it is very emphatic.
The negative form of could is couldn’t in spoken English and could not in written English.
We sometimes say could not.
We use can and can’t :
We sometimes say cannot, but it is very emphatic.
The negative form of could is couldn’t in spoken English and could not in written English.
We sometimes say could not.
We use can and can’t :
- To talk about ability:
Maria can
speak four languages.
I can’t swim, but my sister can.
I can’t swim, but my sister can.
- To say that something is possible or impossible:
Learning
English can be difficult [= Learning English is sometimes difficult.]
Children can be very naughty [= Children are sometimes very naughty.]
It’s still light. It can’t be bedtime.
Children can be very naughty [= Children are sometimes very naughty.]
It’s still light. It can’t be bedtime.
- For requests and refusals of requests
Can I go home now?
You can go whenever you like.
You can borrow the car today, but you can’t have it tomorrow.
You can go whenever you like.
You can borrow the car today, but you can’t have it tomorrow.
- To offer to help someone:
Can I help you.?
Can I carry bag that for you?
Can I carry bag that for you?
We use could
and couldn’t as the past tense of can/can’t:
- To talk about ability:
I could run
very fast when I was younger.
She couldn’t get a job anywhere.
She couldn’t get a job anywhere.
- To say that something was possible or impossible:
Our teacher could
be very strict when we were at school. [= Some teachers were very
strict.]
People could starve in those days. [= People sometimes starved.]
You couldn’t use computers in the nineteenth century.
People could starve in those days. [= People sometimes starved.]
You couldn’t use computers in the nineteenth century.
- To make a polite request:
Could I go now please?
Could you lend me a dictionary please?
Could you lend me a dictionary please?
- To make a polite offer:
Could I give
you a lift?
I could carry that for you.
I could carry that for you.
We use could
have:
- to show that something is possible now or was possible at some time in the past:
It’s ten
o’clock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
They could have arrived hours ago.
may, might, may have and might have
Questions and negatives:
We make questions by putting
the subject after may/might:
May I …? Could I … Might I …? Etc.
May I …? Could I … Might I …? Etc.
The negative forms are may
not and might not..
We use may:
- when we are not sure about something:
Jack may be coming to see us
tomorrow.
Oh dear! It’s half past ten. We may be late for the meeting.
There may not be very many people there.
Oh dear! It’s half past ten. We may be late for the meeting.
There may not be very many people there.
- to make polite requests:
May I borrow the car tomorrow?
May we come a bit later?
May we come a bit later?
When we use may not for
a refusal it is emphatic:
You may not!
You may not borrow the car until you can be more careful with it.
You may not borrow the car until you can be more careful with it.
We use might:
• when we are not sure about
something:
I might see you tomorrow.
It looks nice, but it might be very expensive.
It’s quite bright. It might not rain today.
It looks nice, but it might be very expensive.
It’s quite bright. It might not rain today.
• As the past tense of may for
requests:
He asked if he might borrow the
car.
They wanted to know if they might come later.
They wanted to know if they might come later.
• For very polite requests:
Might I ask you a question?
Might we just interrupt for a moment?
Might we just interrupt for a moment?
We use may have and might
have to show that something has possibly happened now or happened at
some time in the past:
It’s ten o’clock. They might have
arrived now.[= Perhaps they have arrived]
They may have arrived hours ago. [= Perhaps they arrived hours ago.]
They may have arrived hours ago. [= Perhaps they arrived hours ago.]
can or could
Possibility
We use the
modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
It can be
very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use could
as the past tense of can:
It could
be very cold in winter. (=Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)
You could lose your way in the dark. (=People often lost their way in the dark)
You could lose your way in the dark. (=People often lost their way in the dark)
We use could
to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain:
If we don’t hurry we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have to show that something is/was possible now or at some time in the past:
If we don’t hurry we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have to show that something is/was possible now or at some time in the past:
It’s ten
o’clock. They could have arrived now.
They could have arrived hours ago.
They could have arrived hours ago.
Impossibility:
We use the
negative can’t or cannot to show that something is
impossible:
That can’t
be true.
You cannot be serious.
You cannot be serious.
We use couldn’t/could
not to talk about the past:
We knew it could
not be true.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.
Ability:
We use can
to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:
She can
speak several languages.
He can swim like a fish.
They can’t dance very well.
He can swim like a fish.
They can’t dance very well.
We use can
to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present
or future:
You can make
a lot of money if you are lucky.
Help. I can’t breathe.
They can run but they can’t hide.
Help. I can’t breathe.
They can run but they can’t hide.
We use could
to talk about past time:
She could
speak several languages.
They couldn’t dance very well.
They couldn’t dance very well.
Permission:
We use can
to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please?
Can we go home now?
Can we go home now?
could is more formal and polite than
can:
Could I ask a question please?
Could we go home now?
Could we go home now?
We use can
to give permission:
You can go home now if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
You can borrow my pen if you like.
We use can
to say that someone has permission to do something:
We can go out whenever we want.
Students can travel free.
Students can travel free.
Instructions and requests:
We use could
you and as a polite way of telling or asking someone to do
something:
Could you
take a message
please?
Could I have my bill please?
Could I have my bill please?
can is less polite:
Can you take a message please?
Offers and invitations:
We use can
I … to make offers:
Can I help you?
Can I do that for you?
Can I do that for you?
We sometimes
say I can ... or I could ... to make an offer:
I can do that for you if you like.
I can give you a lift to the station.
I can give you a lift to the station.
will or would
We use will:
- to talk about the future – to say what we believe will happen
- to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do
- to make promises and offers
would is the past tense form of will.
Because it is a past tense it is used:
- to talk about the past.
- to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true.
- for politeness.
Beliefs
We use will
- to say what we believe will happen in the future:
We'll be
late.
We will have to take the train.
We will have to take the train.
We use would
as the past tense of will:
- to say what we believed would happen:
I thought I would
be late …… so I would have to take the train.
Offers and promises
We use I
will or We will to make offers and promises:
I’ll give you a lift home after the party.
We will come and see you next week.
We will come and see you next week.
Willingness
- to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do:
We’ll see
you tomorrow.
Perhaps dad will lend me the car.
Perhaps dad will lend me the car.
We use would
as the past tense of will:
- to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do:
We had a
terrible night. The baby wouldn’t go to sleep. He kept waking up and
crying.
Dad wouldn’t lend me the car, so we had to take the train.
Dad wouldn’t lend me the car, so we had to take the train.
- to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:
When they
were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmother’s at the
seaside. They would get up early every morning and they’d have a
quick breakfast then they would run across the road to the beach.
Conditionals
We use will
in conditionals with if and unless to say
what we think will happen in the future or present:
I’ll give
her a call if I can find her number.
You won’t get in unless you have a ticket.
You won’t get in unless you have a ticket.
We use would
to talk about hypotheses, about something which is possible but not
real:
- to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:
It would
be very expensive to stay in a hotel.
- in conditionals with words like if and what if. In these sentences the main verb is usually in the past tense:
I would
give her a call if I could find her number.
If I had the money I'd buy a new car.
You would lose weight if you took more exercise.
If he got a new job he would probably make more money.
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
If I had the money I'd buy a new car.
You would lose weight if you took more exercise.
If he got a new job he would probably make more money.
What if he lost his job. What would happen then?
We use
conditionals to give advice:
Dan will
help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
Dan would
help you if you asked him.
Phrases with would:
- would you…, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:
Would you
carry this for me please?
Would you mind carrying this?
Would you mind not telling him that?
Would you mind carrying this?
Would you mind not telling him that?
- would you like ...; would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:
Would you
like to come round to morrow?
Would you like another drink?
Would you like another drink?
- I would like …; I’d like … (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:
I’d like
that one please.
I’d like to go home now.
I’d like to go home now.
- I’d rather… (I would rather) to say what we prefer:
I’d rather
have that one.
I’d rather go home now.
I’d rather go home now.
- I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite:
It’s very
difficult I would imagine.
I would think that’s the right answer.
I would think that’s the right answer.
will have or would have
We use the perfective will
have when we are looking back from a point in time when something will
have happened.
By the end of the decade scientists will
have discovered a cure for influenza.
I will phone at six o’clock. He will have got home by then.
I will phone at six o’clock. He will have got home by then.
or looking "back" from the
present:
Look at the time. The match will
have started.
It’s half past five. Dad will have finished work.
It’s half past five. Dad will have finished work.
We use would have as
the past tense form of will have:
I phoned at six o’clock. I knew he would
have got home by then.
It was half past five. Dad would have finished work.
It was half past five. Dad would have finished work.
We use would have in past
conditionals to talk about something that did not happen:
If it had been a little warmer we would have gone for
a swim.
He would have been very angry if he had seen you.
He would have been very angry if he had seen you.
double object verbs
1. Some verbs have two objects –an
indirect object and a direct object:
Subject
|
Verb
|
Indirect
object
|
Direct
object
|
My wife
|
sent
|
me
|
an email
|
He
|
brought
|
his mother
|
some
flowers
|
He
|
cooked
|
all his
friends
|
a
delicious meal
|
These clauses have the structure: V
+ N (indirect object) + N (direct object)
2. We can use a prepositional
phrase with to or for with an indirect object:
Subject
|
Verb
|
Direct
object
|
Prepositional
phrase
|
My wife
|
sent
|
an email
|
to me
|
He
|
brought
|
some
flowers
|
for his
mother
|
He
|
cooked
|
a
delicious meal
|
for all
his friends.
|
These clauses have the structure : V
+ N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect object)
3. Common verbs with for
and an indirect object are:
- book
- buy
- get
- cook
- keep
- bring
- make
- pour
- save
- find
They booked a table for me
at the restaurant.
We made toys for all the children.
We made toys for all the children.
4. Common verbs with to
and an indirect object are:
- give
- lend
- offer
- pass
- post
- read
- sell
- send
- show
- promise
- tell
He gave his programme to
the man sitting next to him.
They sent Christmas cards to all their customers.
They sent Christmas cards to all their customers.
5. If the indirect object
is a long phrase we normally use to or for:
He showed his ticket to
the policeman standing by the door.
We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.
We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late.
6. If the indirect object is
a pronoun we normally use the N + V + N + N pattern:
I poured him another
drink.
Their mother read them another story.
Their mother read them another story.
phrasal verbs
Some verbs are two part verbs
(see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases). They consist of a verb and a particle:
- grow + up
>> The children are growing up.
Often this gives the verb a new
meaning:
- take + after
>> She takes after her mother
= She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother. - count + on
>> I know I can count on you
= I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you.
Some transitive two part
verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) have only one pattern:
N (subject) + V + p + N (object)
[Note: N = noun; V = verb; p =
particle]
N
(Subject)
|
Verb
|
Particle
|
N
(Object)
|
She
I My father |
takes
can count comes |
after
on from |
her mother
you Madrid |
Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) are phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs have two different patterns:
• The usual pattern is: N + V + N
+ p
N
(Subject)
|
Verb
|
(N) Object
|
Particle
|
She
He We |
gave
knocked will be leaving |
the money
the glass our friends and neighbours |
back
over behind |
• But sometimes these verbs have the pattern: N (subject) + V + p + N (object)
N
(Subject)
|
Verb
|
Particle
|
N (Object)
|
She
He We |
gave
knocked will be leaving |
back
over behind |
the money
the glass our friends and neighbours |
When the object is a personal
pronoun,these verbs always have the pattern:
N + V +N + p:
She gave back it
>> She gave it backHe knocked over it
>> knocked it overWe will be leaving behind them
>> We will be leaving them behind
• Phrasal verbs are nearly always
made up of a transitive verb and a particle. Common verbs with
their most frequent particles are:
bring:
|
about,
along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up
|
buy:
|
out, up
|
call:
|
off, up
|
carry:
|
off, out
|
cut:
|
back,
down, off, out, up
|
give:
|
away,
back, off
|
hand:
|
back,
down, in, on out, over, round
|
knock:
|
down, out,
over
|
leave:
|
behind,
out
|
let:
|
down, in,
off, out
|
pass:
|
down,
over, round
|
point:
|
Out
|
push:
|
about,
around, over
|
put:
|
across,
away, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up
|
read:
|
Out
|
set:
|
apart,
aside, back, down
|
shut:
|
away, in,
off, out
|
take:
|
apart,
away, back, down, in, on, up, over
|
think:
|
over,
through, up
|
reflexive and ergative verb
Reflexive verbs
1 The
reflexive pronouns (see pronouns) are:
Singular:
|
myself;
yourself; himself; herself; itself
|
Plural:
|
ourselves;
yourselves; themselves
|
We use a reflexive
pronoun after a transitive verb (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)
when the direct object is the same as the subject of the verb:
I am teaching myself to play
the piano.
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.
These are the verbs most often found
with reflexive pronouns:
- cut
- dry
- enjoy
- hurt
- introduce
- kill
- prepare
- teach
Some verbs change
their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct
object:
- amuse
- apply
- busy
- content
- behave
- blame
- distance
- express
- find
- help
- see
Would you
like to help yourself to another drink?
|
=
|
Would you
like to take another drink?
|
I wish
the children would behave themselves.
|
=
|
I wish the
children would behave well.
|
He found
himself lying by the side of the road.
|
=
|
He was
surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.
|
I saw
myself as a famous actor.
|
=
|
I imagined
that I was a famous actor.
|
She applied
herself to the job of mending the lights.
|
=
|
She worked
very hard to mend the lights.
|
He busied
himself in the kitchen.
|
=
|
He worked
busily in the kitchen.
|
I had to
content myself with a few Euros.
|
=
|
I had to
be satisfied with a few Euros.
|
The verb enjoy
always has an object:
We all enjoyed
the party.
I really enjoyed my lunch.
I really enjoyed my lunch.
If enjoy
has no other object, we use a reflexive pronoun:
NOTE: We do not use a reflexive
pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for
themselves:
He washed
in cold water.
He always shaved before going out in the evening.
Michael dressed and got ready for the party.
He always shaved before going out in the evening.
Michael dressed and got ready for the party.
We only use
reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:
He dressed
himself in spite of his injuries.
She’s old enough to wash herself.
She’s old enough to wash herself.
Ergative verbs
1. Ergative verbs are both
transitive and intransitive:
Peter
closed the door
|
Transitive:
N + V + N
|
|
The door
closed
|
Intransitive:
N + V
|
|
I boiled a
pan of water
|
Transitive:
N + V + N
|
|
The pan
boiled
|
Intransitive:
N + V
|
2. Common
ergative verbs are:
- begin
- break
- change
- close
- drop
- crack
- dry
- end
- finish
- grow
- improve
- increase
- move
- open
- shake
- start
- stop
- tear
- turn
I broke the glass.
I dropped the glass and it broke.
I dropped the glass and it broke.
The referee blew his whistle and started the
match.
The match started at 2.30.
The match started at 2.30.
We grew some tasty potatoes.
The potatoes were growing well.
The potatoes were growing well.
The wind
shook the
trees.
The trees shook in the wind.
The trees shook in the wind.
3. Many
verbs to do with cooking are ergative verbs:
- bake
- boil
- cook
- defrost
- freeze
- melt
- roast
You should
roast the meat
at 200 degrees centigrade.
The meat was roasting in a hot oven.
The meat was roasting in a hot oven.
I always
defrost meat before
I cook it.
I am waiting for the meat to defrost.
I am waiting for the meat to defrost.
Melt the chocolate and pour it
over the ice cream.
The chocolate was melting in a pan.
The chocolate was melting in a pan.
4. Verbs to
do with vehicles are often ergative:
- back
- crash
- drive
- fly
- reverse
- run
- sail
- start
- stop
I’m learning
to fly a plane.
The plane flew at twice the speed of sound.
The plane flew at twice the speed of sound.
He crashed his car into a tree.
His car crashed into a tree.
His car crashed into a tree.
5. We use
some ergative verbs with only a few nouns:
- catch: dress, coat, clothes, trousers etc.
- fire : Gun, pistol, rifle, rocket.
- play: guitar, music, piano, violin, CD, DVD etc.
- ring: bell, alarm
She caught her dress on a nail.
Her dress caught on a nail.
Her dress caught on a nail.
He fired a pistol to start the race.
A pistol fired to start the race.
A pistol fired to start the race.
verbs followed by to +
infinitive
1 Some verbs are followed by the to-infinitive:
I decided
to go home as soon as possible.
We all wanted to have more English classes.
We all wanted to have more English classes.
Common verbs
followed by the to-infinitive are:
Verbs of thinking and feeling:
Verbs of thinking and feeling:
- choose
- decide
- expect
- forget
- hate
- hope
- intend
- learn
- like
- love
- mean
- plan
- prefer
- remember
- would like
- would love
Verbs of
saying:
- agree
- promise
- refuse
Other common
verbs are:
- arrange
- attempt
- fail
- help
- manage
- tend
- try
- want
2 Some verbs are followed by a noun and the to-infinitive:
She asked
him to send her a text message.
He wanted all his friends to come to his party.
He wanted all his friends to come to his party.
Common verbs
with this pattern are:
Verbs of saying:
Verbs of saying:
- advise
- ask
- encourage
- invite
- order
- persuade
- remind
- tell
- warn *
*Note: The
verb warn is normally used with not
The police warned everyone not to drive too fast.
Verbs of wanting or liking:
The police warned everyone not to drive too fast.
Verbs of wanting or liking:
- expect
- intend
- would
- prefer
- want
- would like
Other verbs
with this pattern are:
- allow
- enable
- force
- get
- teach
3. Passive infinitive
Many of
these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive
(to be + past participle):
(to be + past participle):
I expected
to be met when I arrived at the station.
They wanted to be told if anything happened.
I don’t like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.
They wanted to be told if anything happened.
I don’t like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.
Activity 1(pop-up): Match the 'to infinitive' clauses to the sentence beginnings.
Activity 2(pop-up): Match the 'to infinitive' clauses to the sentence beginnings.
Activity 3(pop-up): Match the 'to infinitive' clauses to the sentence beginnings.
verbs followed by -ing clauses
Common verbs
followed by –ing nouns are:
Verbs of liking and disliking:
- detest
- dislike
- enjoy
- hate
- fancy
- like
- love
I love
swimming but I
hate jogging.
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
A: Do you fancy going for a walk?
B: I wouldn’t mind
They always enjoyed visiting their friends.
A: Do you fancy going for a walk?
B: I wouldn’t mind
Phrases with mind:
- wouldn’t mind (= would like)
- don’t mind (= I am willing to)
- would you mind (= will you please…?)
I wouldn’t
mind having some fish and chips.
I don’t mind waiting for a few minutes.
Would you mind holding this for me?
I don’t mind waiting for a few minutes.
Would you mind holding this for me?
Verbs of saying and thinking:
- admit
- consider
- deny
- imagine
- remember
- suggest
Our guide
suggested waiting until the storm was over.
Everyone denied seeing the accident.
Everyone denied seeing the accident.
Other common verbs are:
- avoid
- begin
- finish
- keep
- miss
- practise
- risk
- start
- stop
I haven’t
finished writing this
letter.
Let’s practise speaking English.
Let’s practise speaking English.
Passive form of -ing
Many of
these verbs are sometimes followed by the passive form of -ing: being
+ past participle
I don’t like
being interrupted.
Our dog loves being stroked under the chin.
Our dog loves being stroked under the chin.
Noun + -ing clause
Some verbs
are followed by a noun and an -ing clause:
Verbs to do with the senses:
Verbs to do with the senses:
- see
- watch
- hear
- smell
- listen to
- etc.
We saw
everybody running away.
I could hear someone singing.
I could hear someone singing.
Other common
verbs:
- catch
- find
- imagine
- leave
- prevent
- stop
I caught
someone trying to break into my house.
We couldn’t prevent them getting away.
We couldn’t prevent them getting away.
verbs followed by that clause
With "that"
We can use
clauses with that:
• after verbs of thinking:
• after verbs of thinking:
- think
- believe
- expect
- decide
- hope
- know
- understand
- suppose
- guess
- imagine
- feel
- remember
- forget
I hope that
you will enjoy your holiday.
She didn’t really think that it would happen.
I knew that I had seen her somewhere before.
She didn’t really think that it would happen.
I knew that I had seen her somewhere before.
• after
verbs of saying:
- say
- admit
- argue
- reply
- agree
- claim
- deny
- mention
- answer
- complain
- explain
- promise
- suggest
They
admitted that they had made a mistake.
She argued that they should invest more in the business.
The children complained that they had nothing to do.
She argued that they should invest more in the business.
The children complained that they had nothing to do.
Note: tell and some other
verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see clauses,
sentences and phrases):
- tell
- convince
- persuade
- inform
- remind
We tried to
tell them that they should stop what they were doing.
The police informed everybody that the danger was over.
The police informed everybody that the danger was over.
• as
postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinking or saying:
- advice
- belief
- claim
- feeling
- argument
- hope
- promise
- report
- guess
- opinion
- idea
He made a promise
that he would do all he could to help.
I had a funny feeling that something was wrong.
I had a funny feeling that something was wrong.
• after some
nouns to say more about the noun:
- fact
- advantage
- effect
- possibility
- chance
- danger
- evidence
- problem
- difficulty
She pointed
out the danger that they might be left behind.
There was a chance that we would succeed
There was a chance that we would succeed
Note: We often use a that clause
to define one of these nouns after the verb be :
- danger
- problem
- chance
- possibility
- fact
The danger
is that we will be left behind.
The fact is that it is getting very late.
The fact is that it is getting very late.
• after some
adjectives which describe feelings to give a reason for our feelings:
- pleased
- sorry
- happy
- unhappy
- sad
- excited
- glad
- disappointed
- afraid
I am sorry that
you can’t come.
Everybody was pleased that the danger was past.
It is lucky that you were able to drive us home.
Everybody was pleased that the danger was past.
It is lucky that you were able to drive us home.
No "that"
NOTE:
We can always use a clause without the word that:
They
admitted [that] they had made a mistake.
The police informed everybody [that] the danger was over.
I am sorry [that] you can’t come.
There was chance [that] we would succeed.
The police informed everybody [
I am sorry [
There was chance [
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